Scant Evidence Behind the Advice About Salt.

Joseph Daher

Mr. Charles Ippolito

December 19, 2018

AP Biology D-Even

Carroll, Aaron E. “Scant Evidence Behind the Advice About Salt.” The New York Times, The

New York Times, 17 Dec. 2018,

www.nytimes.com/2018/12/17/upshot/salt-diet-heart-failure-little-evidence.html.

In an article published by the New York Times, Aaron E. Carroll highlights how despite a number of studies published by health scientists have questioned the usefulness of very low-salt diets, many health organizations continue to recommend them. Carroll cites the limited scope and mixed results of the few studies that sought to see if reduced sodium intake was associated with a lower risk of heart disease. He argues that health and dietary organizations are overconfident in their advice that simply reducing sodium intake has significantly lower risks of heart disease when exercising and eating more healthfully. Carroll calls for more controlled trials to prove the worth of dietary advice that amounts to largely hearsay, and to step back from the contrived notion of sodium restriction, concluding his article by stating that “it seems the assurance with which we speak should match the quality of evidence behind our recommendations”.

Despite the limited evidence supporting the benefit of a low-sodium diet, many different health organizations spread this unsubstantiated claim stating that it lowers the risk of heart disease. Heart disease is an endemic health problem in our modern society of industrialized and processed foods; about 5.7 million people in the United States suffer from heart failure every year. Thus the need for lowering the risk of heart disease is widespread and useful; but comparatively very little data has been collected on low-sodium diet. As Caroll points out, instead of selling fad diets like low-sodium diets, health organizations could and should push for more healthy holistic lifestyle changes in general.

Carroll’s article was a pointed summary of the debacle of unsubstantiated low-sodium fad diets, and how weak studies have contributed to the largely mythological notion of the association of heart disease and sodium intake. Carroll could have been more precise in what healthful lifestyle changes amount to besides reducing sodium intake, or the specifics of what would constitute more credible scientific studies to support the association of reduced sodium intake and reduced risk of heart disease. Otherwise, Carroll successfully used the scant evidence behind the advice about salt as a platform to advocate for more holistic lifestyle changes and point out how dietary advice is often based upon unfounded or weakly verified claims.

AP Biology Cell Energetics Projects

The students were asked to create a banner, cartoon, collage, diorama, model, storyboard, video reenactment that illustrates/makes sense of a complicated component/process/pathway of photosynthesis/respiration.

R. Muchenbach's Presentation comparing Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration

S. Szabo's Website comparing Homolactic and Alcoholic Fermentation

C. DeMalgalhaes's Presentation on the C3 Photosynthesis Pathway

C. Cagliostro's Presentation comparing Cyclic vs. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

J. Hoag's Website on the process of Oxidative Phosphorylation 

S. Ladas' Presentation on the Kreb's Cycle of Aerobic Respiration

J. Parzick's Presentation on the Evolution of Cellular Metabolic Pathways

H. Villanueva's Pesentation on Pigments and Photosystems

A. Goldbaum's Presentation on  the C4 Photosynthesis Pathway

P. Magaud's Presentation on Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration

C. Hutchins' podcast on the CAM Photosynthesis Pathway 

A. Demetrios' podcast on Glycolysis

J. Haher's Presentation on Cyclic vs. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

C. Mooney's Presentation on Electron Transport in the Mitochondrion

A. Lee's Website on Chemiosmosis. 

Huge Brain Study Uncovers “Buried” Genetic Networks Linked to Mental Illness

Cassidy Mullen

Ippolito C Even

Current Event #11

December 11, 2018

Geddes, Linda. “Huge Brain Study Uncovers ‘Buried’ Genetic Networks Linked to Mental

Illness.” Scientific American, 14 Dec. 2018,

www.scientificamerican.com/article/huge-brain-study-uncovers-buried-genetic-networks-linked-to-mental-illness/.

Pinpointing how gene variants contribute to diseases has been a large setback in the past, but recently discovery has given doctors insight into the driving force of brain conditions such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These are neuropsychiatric disorders that involve hundreds of genes which interact with their environment and contributes to only a small amount to the overall disease risk. In the last ten years, many genetic variants have been identified which are associated with these disorders, but it’s unclear how the DNA sequence changes the ways the genes function. Researchers recently uncovered networks of genes that have been unidentified in the past along with the discovery of elements buried in the ‘dark matter’ of a genome which regulates gene expression and could contribute to disorders relating to brain conditions. In addition, there are regions in DNA which, were previously considered useless, that do not code for proteins.  Inside these areas are elements that regulate gene expression and could have a powerful influence on a person’s risk for a disease.

A molecular biologist at Yale University, Mark Gerstein acknowledges that they have not figured out the “underlying mechanism of these diseases, or how you would go about designing drugs,” but they are “highlighting genes, pathways and also cell types that are associated with these diseases.” By taking brain tissue from 1,866 cadavers and using genomic-sequencing techniques to study them, the researchers were able to make connections between specific genes and noncoding DNA variants which have been linked to neuropsychiatric diseases in the past. This makes it easier to find the variants that actually alter how genes function and contribute to brain conditions.  Clearly, the search for the root of the problem is still underway, but discovering new possibilities and eliminating options could lead to a possible cure in the future. Once the specific cause of neuropsychiatric disorders is found, it will be much easier to find a cure that specifically targets and eliminates the problem.

I thought that this article was very interesting. I was upset by the fact that this idea is still very underdeveloped because there is lots more research to be done and the cause of brain disorders is still unknown, so I think that the title, “Huge Brain Study Uncovers “Buried” Genetic Networks Linked to Mental Illness.” gave me a little bit of false hope. This article was a little bit difficult to follow because it used a lot of specific medical vocabulary, but it also explained some of the terms used which was helpful. I appreciate the fact that Gerstein acknowledges, “We’re not claiming in the remotest way to have figured out the underlying mechanism of these diseases.” This contributes to the credibility of the article.    

The First Successful Uterus Transplant from Deceased Donor Leads to Healthy Baby.

Anabel Maldonado

Ippolito C Even

Current Event #11

December 11th, 2018

Weintraub, Karen. “First Successful Uterus Transplant from Deceased Donor Leads to Healthy Baby.” Scientific American, 5 Dec. 2018, www.scientificamerican.com/article/first-successful-uterus-transplant-from-deceased-donor-leads-to-healthy-baby/.

Our society constantly discovers new ways that can save thousands of lives: vaccinations, transplants, treatments, etc. Yet, in these past years, we have invented ways that can help “create” lives. Several years ago, a woman received a uterus from a transplant, and was ultimately able to give birth - after more than a year had passed. This was the first time in our history that a woman with a transplanted uterus was able to give birth! These discoveries can help many women that have medical conditions involving their uterus, or were born without one. Although this was a success, this procedure was much more complicated than normal ones. For instance, the doctor wanted to deliver the baby earlier than expected to avoid problems that could arise in the future.  In addition, our society has to think about controversy involving transplants. Some may schedule transplants - such as kidneys. However, if a person (who is an organ donor) dies, the topic of which organ to remove first is complicated. Some doctors strongly believe uterus’ should be removed first as they state “he wants to focus on helping more women have a single child rather than on one woman having more than one. For future procedures he hopes to cut down on the time to transplant by removing the uterus before other organs, like the heart and kidneys.” Although it is possible that transplants can not go well, it is worth the effort to try and help a mother

This topic is very impactful for our society. Treatments to save lives are very significant for science. Yet, helping create more lives is, also, VERY important. In fact, I chose this topic because my mother is an Obstetrician Gynecologist and constantly speaks about the women who are unable to have babies because of problems such as these. Discoveries and successes such as these not only give hope to patients such as hers, in addition our society will have a better understanding of pregnancies and uterus’.

In this article, Weinberg succeeds when connecting with her audience, as she personalizes the article. In the beginning she happily introduces the topic by telling the story of a Brazilian women whom had a transplant, yet also ahd birth. In addition, she was successful when finding quotes from scientists and explorers - which impacted the audience tremendously. For instance, “he wants to focus on helping more women have a single child rather than on one woman having more than one.” (O’Neil). On the contrary, Weinberg could improve when presenting her thoughts. She jumped from new ideas to new ideas. She continually was inconsistent when explaining this discovery. In order to improve, she could have first given a background explanation of the transplant then explain the new success: a uterus transplant and childbirth.

James Apostolatos      12/11/18

Current Event 11 AP Biology

Citation:

Saey, Tina Hesman. “Biologists Are One Step Closer to Creating Snake Venom in the Lab.”

Science News, 11 Dec. 2018, www.sciencenews.org/article/biologists-snake-venom-glands-organoids.

Hyperlink: www.sciencenews.org/article/biologists-snake-venom-glands-organoids.

This article discusses how researchers have learned to grow organoids that mimic the venom glands of snakes. According to Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Organoids are “tiny, self-organized three-dimensional tissue cultures that are derived from stem cells.”. These researchers wanted to know if they could make organoids producing venom from snakes. A team of researchers produced venom-gland organoids from at least seven species of snakes. The organoids have survived in the lab for up to two years and have shown successful results.  Harvesting venom from the organoids can provide a new way to receive venom samples in large quantities. The growth of organoids and experiments using snake venom can be the next step in using venom to create drugs and antibodies.

This topic is important because it is connected to stem cell research. Recent experiments using stem cells have the potential to become many different types of cells in the body. The connection to this article is that the use stem cells may allow researchers to make venom in the lab instead of extracting it from the actual snake. In this experiment, if scientists can extract venom from the lab-grown glands, that venom might be used to create new drugs and antidotes for bites. This is also connected to the use of snake farms. Learning about snake venom is important considering up to 2.7 million people worldwide are estimated to be bitten by venomous snakes each year according to the World Health Organization. The study of snake venom can lead to antivenoms and cures. According to the article “If scientists can extract venom from the lab-grown glands, that venom might be used to create new drugs and antidotes for bites including from snakes that aren’t currently raised on farms” (Saey,2018,1). Further research of these antibodies can help a bitten person recover.

I would have liked to see more details about the actual method, the researchers used to extract the venom. I would also have liked to learn more about the different types of snakes in the experiment. There also should have been more information about the scientist's background. I also wanted to learn how successful the data was and how they used the data for this specific experiment. It also would have been nice to show the future experiments that can take place.

Earth's Mysterious 'Deep Biosphere' May Harbor Millions of Undiscovered Species

Anton Tarazi

AP Biology

Mr. Ippolito

12/11/18

Specktor, Brandon. “Earth's Mysterious 'Deep Biosphere' May Harbor Millions of Undiscovered Species.” NBCNews.com, NBCUniversal News Group, 11 Dec. 2018, www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/earth-s-mysterious-deep-biosphere-may-harbor-millions-undiscovered-species-ncna946531.

In his article “Earth's Mysterious 'Deep Biosphere' May Harbor Millions of Undiscovered Species,” Brandon Specktor discusses the abundance of life that is existing under the surface of the Earth. While we are well-aware of all the life that exists on the surface of this planet and the upper part of the oceans, there is actually so much more hidden in the depths of both land and sea. Scientists at the Deep Carbon Observatory (DCP) are digging and digging to find new life forms in the dark, seemingly inhospitable land under our feet that is actually teeming with microorganisms and has biodiversity rivaling that at the surface. There is an estimated 17 to 25 billion tons of organic carbon underground, approximately 300 to 400 times as much carbon biomass as there is on the surface, and houses 70% of the Earth’s microorganisms. These microorganisms are challenging traditional beliefs of where life can exist, some thriving at temperatures as high as 121 ℃.

The realization of how much life is yet to be discovered in the depths of our planet is quite startling. There are perhaps millions of new species lurking beneath our feet, life forms that have never before been observed, bacteria with unique characteristics, or perhaps diseases that should never reach the surface. By studying these life forms, scientists will learn more about life in extreme conditions, expanding our knowledge of how creatures survive and flourish in these environments. For instance studying the organisms underground can help scientists establish better criteria for determining whether other planets can support life.

I felt that this article was brief but did not leave out any information. Specktor did a good job of describing the extent of the life that exists in the deep biosphere by giving statistics using multiple comparisons to the ecosystem aboveground. For instance Specktor says, “Data from these sites suggest that the world's deep biosphere spans roughly 500 million cubic miles (2.3 billion cubic kilometers) — about twice the volume of all the Earth's oceans — and houses about 70 percent of all the planet's bacteria and single-cell archaea.” He gives his audience both raw numbers and a comparison so we can put the immensity of the life underground into perspective. One weakness that I found in the article is that the nature of the life underground was not thoroughly described. While Specktor did say that there were millions of undiscovered species of bacteria and single celled archaea, he did not say much about them beyond that. While of course we do not know much about these bacteria, it would be worth addressing these questions, such as are they pathogenic? Or what are their similarities and differences to the bacteria we are familiar with? Other than this, though, it was a well-written article that brought to light the underground life of the dark.

Layla Brinster

AP Biology

12/10

Current Event

Scutti, Susan. “Most US Adults Have Not Gotten a Flu Shot for This Mild Season.” CNN, Cable News Network, 7 Dec. 2018, www.cnn.com/2018/12/07/health/flu-season-vaccination-november-30-cdc/index.html.

Susan Scutti, in her “Most US Adults Have Not Gotten a Flu Shot for This Mild Season” writes that according to the NORC, a research program at the University of Chicago, the majority of adults have not gotten their flu shot this season. ‘Only 43% of surveyed people 18 or older said they had gotten vaccinated against the flu, according to NORC, which has conducted the National Immunization Survey for the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention since 2005. Including the approximately 14% of adults who said they will get the shot, around ⅓ of adults will not get their flu shot. In part, the reason for this is that this season is particularly mild, with low to moderate flu activity, a dramatic change from previous years of high activity. Although some may think the large fraction of people who remain unvaccinated is because of the low activity, they are wrong; the number of people vaccinated has been similar to years past, in accordance to Richard Webby, a flu scientist. However, the amount of flu-related deaths “was below the usual threshold for this time of year, the CDC said.” Furthermore, only about 2.2% of people visited the doctors for ‘flu-like symptoms’ and 1 for every 100,000 hospitals visits was due to the flu. These reassuring statistics, according to Webby, are because of the dominant flu strand, H1N1, and its match to the developed vaccine, but it is still recommended that people, especially young children/babies get vaccinated.

This connects to society because the flu is a real-world issue. Multiple people have died because of the flu. Even though the flu mortality rate this year is low, it is still very relevant and has caused the deaths of a few. Many people should get vaccinated if they aren’t already in order to stay healthy and resistant to the flu. Also, when people get vaccinated they protect themselves from the flu and prevent the virus from spreading and developing. Therefore, it is safest to get vaccinated and keep yourself healthy. People may not view the flu as a terrible illness, but it does possess the capabilities to be one; it is important to protect yourself. This article also affected me because I haven’t gotten my flu shot yet, so now I want to make my appointment.

Scutti wrote a very well crafted article explaining the flu and its effect this year. She did a nice job with incorporating statistics and relevant quotes from researchers to validate her points and argument. However, Scutti also could have included other references to different scientists or researchers. Scutti also referenced a study done multiple times but did not elaborate enough on the study, in my opinion. In order to improve this, she could have included a graph, table, or chart, with more data in order to provide a visual representation and clarify any misconceptions.