Rachel Roberts

11/4/19

Bates, Sofie. “Disabling One Protein Might One Day Lead to a Cure for the Common Cold.” 

Science News, 23 Sept. 2019, 

www.sciencenews.org/article/common-cold-virus-disable-protein. 

For Current Event 7, I decided to review Sofia Bates’ article, “Disabling One Protein Might One Day Lead to a Cure for the Common Cold.” She begins by stating that researchers have found a key protein in humans that viruses use to multiply inside of human cells. If scientists can disable this protein, it could prevent the spreading of infections. According to Jan Carette, a microbiologist at Stanford University School of Medicine, when the protein is disabled in mice and human cells, the virus could not replicate. Ellen Foxman, an immunologist at Yale School of Medicine, says that “It’s not quite a cure for the common cold, but it’s an interesting step forward.” Carette and her collages used CRISPR, the gene-editing device to identify and pull out the human proteins that were attached to viral proteins. They found that the protein SETD3 was repeatedly pulled out. They also found that when SETD3 was taken out of mice, they would not become sick. These discoveries gave scientists the idea to remove the protein. However, there isn’t enough known about it and the effects of removing it for the procedure to be safe. For example, Vincent Racaniello, a virologist at Columbia University, said, “The authors show that mice lacking the gene for SETD3 are viable and resistant to infection. However, this observation does not mean that SETD3 in humans is dispensable,” This uncertainty caused for the idea of drugs that could block proteins and their viral counterparts from interacting or drugs that would destroy proteins interacting with viral ones. The discovery of how specific proteins help viruses multiply could help create a cure for the common cold and many other viral infections. 

While the research of SETD3 has been mainly focused on curing the common cold, its removal could also help cure other viral infections. In her article, Bates wrote, “Repeating those experiments with similar but potentially more serious viruses suggested the approach may be effective against more than just the common cold. Engineered human cells didn’t become infected when they were exposed to viruses that cause hand, foot, and mouth disease, and a polio-like spinal cord disease called acute flaccid myelitis. And when mice were exposed to these viruses, the rodents that didn’t have a functioning version of SETD3 were much more likely to survive than those that had the working gene.” This quote shows how the removal of SETD3 helped the mice recover from other illnesses. This means that scientists can use similar methods to find cures to other diseases, increasing the length and quality of life.

When reading this article, I found that there were many good aspects of her writing. She was able to explain the information used in the article very well, especially since I did not know much about the subject before reading it. For example, her explanation of how the scientists used CRISPR was helpful, and it allowed me to explain it in this review. Also, while there was not much of a background story following the person who made the discovery, Bates was still able to make the article very interesting by creating the storyline of how the scientists discovered SETD3. Although the story was captivating, there were some choppy areas of the article. It transitioned quickly between topics, which would sometimes confuse me. For example, the article went from the article went discovery of the key proteins, to the statistics of the common cold, and then back to how the proteins were identified. While the statistics helped understand the issues of finding the cure to the common cold, it felt slightly misplaced in the sense that it broke up the story. There were slight transitions at the end of the paragraphs, but not enough to fully cue the reader in that topics will shift. While most of the article was well written, it would be much easier to read if there was a clear order of information.

Newly Discovered Virus Replicates in a Completely Unknown Way

A review of:

Saplakoglu, Yasemin. “This Newly Discovered Virus Replicates in a Completely Unknown Way.” LiveScience, Purch, 28 Oct. 2019, www.livescience.com/new-virus-discovered-lacking-important-proteins.html.

I chose to review the article “This Newly Discovered Virus Replicates in a Completely Unknown Way” by Yasemin Saplakoglu. This was a relatively short article which shared information about a newly discovered type of enterovirus G (EV-G). This new virus was the result of two other viruses that shared genetic material, an enterovirus G and a torovirus. What is so surprising about this new virus, is that is is able to thrive, even though it lacks the proteins necessary for replication. Enteroviruses are spread through infected organisms as well surfaces covered with the virus, and are transmittable through fecal matter, saliva, mucus and other bodily liquids. Researchers in Japan studying pig and cow poop discovered the virus, as “these dirty environments, where lots of animals constantly interact, are a good place for viruses to quickly evolve”(Yasemin). The new EV-G strain, named type 2 EV-G, lacks an important feature that is present in all other known viruses. It lacks “structural proteins,” as they are called, which allow microbes to attach to, enter, and replicate within host cells. The virus strain does not have the genes which code for these proteins, though the virus does contain “unknown” and not previously studied genes. “Without structural proteins, the virus shouldn't be able to infect other cells,” says Tetsuya Mizutani, the director at the Research and Education Center for Prevention of Global Infectious Disease of Animal (TUAT) in Japan. Despite this, the same virus was found on the same farm within the fecal matter of pigs over three years later, suggesting that the virus is somehow thriving and replicating within pigs. The researchers hypothesized that the type 2 EV-G virus borrowed structural proteins from other nearby viruses referred to as “helper viruses,” similar to how hepatitis D relies on hepatitis B for replication despite having its own structural proteins.

This discovery has implications for human society and possible developments in preventing and treating the viruses that plague humans. While the various strains of EV-G cannot currently infect humans, there is a distinct possibility that viruses that do have the ability to infect humans may evolve in a similar fashion. "Understanding how viral recombination occurs and how viruses develop dependencies on helper viruses is an important key to unlocking some of the mysteries of virus evolution," says Amesh Adalja, an infectious disease specialist. In 2013, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) approved changes to EV and rhinovirus species names, and a later proposal was made to drop the designation of viruses as human, bovine, porcine, and simian^1 after studying the genetic similarity of the viruses and human enterovirus species were successfully isolated in non-human hosts. There is a high chance that many EVs that naturally exist and circulate through animal populations may also be infecting humans. For this reason, the study of viruses and viral evolution is key for keeping human populations protected, particularly the more susceptible infant population and children under the age of one. The study of these viruses and the environmental causes of their evolution serve as a reminder of the importance of maintaining hygienic conditions in areas with high human populations.

Yasemin’s article smartly condensed information and presented it in a way that would be easy to understand for anyone. The article introduced the discovery of the new enterovirus, and gave background information on who and how the discovery was made. The article also highlighted how this discovery prompted more research and the questions that it raised - and the desire of Mizutani and his team “to figure out which helper viruses enable 2 EV-G to survive, and exactly what the unknown genes do”(Yasemin). However, I found that the article was a bit lacking in information, and I had to do some outside research to answer some of the questions I developed while reading the article. I was glad to find that the author included a link to the original publication of this discovery. I think the article would have been much more credible and beneficial if it also contained additional references, citations, or links to other,related research.

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1.  Fieldhouse, Jane K, et al. “A Systematic Review of Evidence That Enteroviruses May Be Zoonotic.” National Center for Biotechnology Information , Nature Publishing Group UK, 26 Sept. 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6158190/.

Ellyn Paris 

Mr. Ippolito

Current Event 7

11/4/19

Martone, Robert. “Scientists Demonstrate Direct Brain-to-Brain Communication in Humans.” Scientific American, 29 Oct. 2019.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientists-demonstrate-direct-brain-to-brain-communication-in-humans/

In this article, the possibility of direct brain-to-brain communication in humanity’s future was discussed. This type of communication would be a way for the human species to provide information to another being through the transmission of their brain’s electrical activity. Miguel Nicolelis, a leading scientist in this field, used complex implanted electrodes on rats to study the communication that could be transferred from one rat’s brain to another. It was discovered that the linked animals synchronized the electrical activity of their nerve cells as if it were one brain. This connection allowed them to be “smarter” (they outperformed other rates in specific activities). Similar experiences were tested on humans, where three individuals sitting in different rooms were “linked” while playing a video game, and their brains’ response to this collaboration was recorded using EEGs (electroencephalographs). They were able to complete the video game while achieving an accuracy rate of 80%. While these experiments focus on the connecting of brains for individuals of the same species, studies have been done connecting organisms of different species. In one experiment, a human was able to control a rat that had a surgically implanted brain interface. 

While brain-to-brain communication is not yet developed enough to be used in daily life, the importance of these new discoveries could have an important impact on society. First of all, as Nicolelis explains, “thoughts and feelings would be completely shared with none of the selectivity or deception that language permits” (Martone, 3). Misunderstandings and miscommunications would be avoided. While these impacts are more personal and individual, brain-to-brain communication could have influential powers on a wider scale. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency wishes to use these findings to develop an implantable neural interface that could activate one million nerve cells simultaneously. Although some anticipate development in this field in the hopes that it could improve our society, others are concerned by it. They question the morality of brain-to-brain communications, wondering if it could potentially compromise somebody’s individuality and privacy. 

This article’s main strength is its ability to fascinate the readers and convince them to continue learning about this subject. The topic is interesting on its own, but the author’s writing intrigues the reader to read until the end. The vocabulary is easy to understand, and there are many examples of studies and experiments that back up the main theme of the article. However, these experiments and studies are not always cited. Nicolelis is given credit at the beginning for a set of experiments, but as the writing develops and more experiments are mentioned, the scientists or universities behind the experiments are not cited. To improve this article, Martone should cite all his sources when writing about them. Furthermore, going further into the impact these discoveries could have on society would also improve the article. Although he mentions the government's plans with these findings, he does not explain the impact this would have on the country’s population or the international consequences that could arise.

Second Team going through their "walk-through" of the crime scene, discussing what they see prior to identifying and cataloging the physical evidence
Team 2 C block Walk-through

New gene editing technology could correct 89% of genetic defects

Caroline McGrath

10/27/19

Current Event 6

https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/22/health/gene-editing-study-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html 

The article New Gene Editing Technology Could Correct 89% of Genetic Defects by Jessie Yeung covers a very intriguing topic that relates back to the building blocks of our species. As most people know, DNA has mutations that lead to devastating and debilitating diseases. In the article Yeung describes a process known as “prime editing”, where it takes CRISPR (a genetic engineering tool that uses a CRISPR sequence of DNA and its associated proteins to edit the base pairs of a gene) to a new level, allowing for the  genetic information to be written directly into the desired gene spot. As Yeung mentions, “About two-thirds of known human genetic variants associated with diseases are single point gene mutations, so gene editing has the potential to correct or reproduce such mutations”. The prime editing combines a new gene with CRISPR to cut the DNA strand and smoothly insert the new genetic information. This process has the opportunity to reverse around 89% of known-causing genetic diseases, including sickle cell anemia. More and more researchers continue to discover and test this new technology, with hopes that it will "provide a potential path for human therapeutic applications”. Yeung closes her article by describing the possible threats of this new technology, including the manipulation of embryos to fit a wanted criteria or a possible new mutation. 

This article is huge for everyone. Everyone knows someone who is struggling from a genetic mutation, whether it be sickle cell anemia or cancer, which is threatening their life, and with this new technology that threat might be able to dissipate. The article discusses about potential usage on embryos, if that is in fact proven to work, it will change the way our species works. One can completely design their baby, although there are certain ethical questions there, it will have a great impact on the future of our society. Overall, the usage of this technology is endless, whether it be solving some of the deadliest diseases, or potential usage for everyday people.

The article overall is very well written. It talks about the gene editing process in a way that gets the point across to someone unfamiliar with the process, while keeping it complex enough to get across the depth of this topic. I also found myself wanting to read more about the topic; because the article provided such good insight into the topic and the potential usage I never found myself bored. One thing I think needed to be better explain was the other diseases it could cure. It mentioned curing 89%, but only specified sickle cell anemia. I think it needed to further clarify other diseases. In order to improve the article, the author needed state what sickle cell anemia was when it mentioned it. It can be inferred that it is a genetic mutation, but it was never explicitly said, which is important for the understanding of the technology.

Lily Jebejian

10/26/19

AP Biology

Current Event #6

Mcneil, Donald G. “Two Strains of Polio Are Gone, but the End of the Disease Is Still Far Off.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 23 Oct. 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/10/23/health/polio-strain-eradication.html.

Polio is a disease that has been devastating for hundreds of years. It is particularly harmful to children because it causes permanent paralysis if the child isn’t vaccinated. There are a total of three types of polio: type one, type two, and type three. Type two was declared eliminated in 2015, and just this week type three was declared eliminated as well, leaving only type one as the active virus. The fight against polio has taken longer than expected because of a number of reasons, 

“First, millions of families around the world have not let their children have the drops because of persistent false rumors that the vaccine is a Western plot to sterilize Muslim girls or do other harm. Second, in some countries viruses used in the oral vaccine itself have mutated into a form that can be passed on in diapers and sewage, and can paralyze unvaccinated children. That has contributed to fear of the oral vaccine, even though full vaccination is the only protection against such mutant viruses”(McNeil).

These factors have made the eradication of polio a much slower process than expected. In order to receive full protection children must take an oral and injection vaccination. But recently there have been reports that the weakened virus is mutating and causing harm to unvaccinated children. This outbreak of circulating vaccine-derived polio virus (or cVDPV) has been occuring in 20 countries over the past two years. More children have been paralyzed by cVDPV in the past two years than by type one polio. This poses more problems by creating more harm than it is stopping. In order to fix this doctors and scientists are working to create a less dangerous vaccine and make sure every child receives it. 

Although these outbreaks of type one polio are only occurring in Pakistan and Afghanistan, it is crucial to stop the virus because it can spread very easily. Once the virus begins to spread it will be harder to contain, so therefore we have to eradicate it completely while also being cautious of the effects the vaccine may have. In addition to stopping type one polio, we must also be prepared in case type two or three come back, this means having vaccines ready and plans in place so that there isn’t another outbreak.

Overall I thought this article was very informative and interesting to read. But, there were some places I thought could be improved. I felt that at some points more information was necessary in order for the reader to fully understand the concept. One particular point is the origin of cVDPV, which I thought was not fully explained. I also think the addition of more symptoms of polio would have benefitted the article. But overall I thought the article was well done and really got me thinking about this issue. 

“New Books Explore Why Dogs and Humans Have Such a Special Bond.”

Erin Kaye

10/28/19

AP Bio

Current Event #6

Willyard, Cassandra. “New Books Explore Why Dogs and Humans Have Such a Special Bond.” Science News, 18 Oct. 2019, www.sciencenews.org/article/review-dog-is-love-our-dogs-ourselves.

Cassandra Willyard in her article “New Books Explore Why Dogs and Humans Have Such a Special Bond” discusses two new books that were released, Dog is Love by Clive Wynne and Our Dogs, Ourselves by Alexandra Horowitz. Willyard explains the differences in the books. Wynne was skeptical at first if dogs love us but his research reveals that “not only do dogs love us” but their “capacity and desire to connect with humans” makes them unique. The book looks into theories of domestication, genetic and biological research, to explain why dogs are so devoted to humans. Horowitz’s book gives an “overview of the culture of dogdom.” She addresses the light and dark sides of the issues and questions if it is right to look at dogs as our property. Both authors address the breeding problem and the genetic defects that the purebred pool spurns out. Both articles propose changing the ways people treat dogs and laws that deal with dog ownership. Willyard advises the readers to buy the two new books.

The findings in the article could have many effects on our current society. Previously research on dogs was not overly done because of the risk of anthropomorphizing them. However, the more attention and research we do the more people can learn how to properly treat and love their dogs. Dogs are extremely social beings and Willyard addresses how leaving them alone in a house all day is one of the cruelest things we can do to them. From the article, people can learn to be smart dog owners and only own a dog if they can properly care for it. People can also be smart consumers and not pay for purebred breeds which leads to genetic malfunctions and the suffering. The more attention that is placed on dogs, the more help and protection they will get from the law to protect them from mistreatment. The article brings knowledge and attention to this issue.

The opening of the essay could have been improved. The anecdote writing did not flow with the writing consistent with the rest of the article. Even though the author was reviewing the two books she should not have told the audience to grab the books at the end. It made her sound that the only reason for writing the review was to pitch it to the audience and was not the best lasting impression. Instead, she should have told the reader where to find the book online or at their local book store if they wanted. Willyard was successful in addressing the main points in the books. The article was easy to follow and the reader gained a good idea about the two books and the issues.