Melissa Marchetti

Mr Ippolito

AP Bio/Current Event #2

10/05/20

Kowalski, Kathiann. “How to Recycle 'Nonrecyclable' Plastics.” Science News for Students, 29 Sept. 2020, www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/how-to-recycle-nonrecyclable-plastics. 

For this week's current event, I decided to read  “How to Recycle 'Nonrecyclable' Plastics.”, by Kathiann Kowalski. In her article, she describes a more efficient and sustainable way of recycling. She begins with the issues we currently face regarding recycling. She explains that most plastics take over 100 years to chemically biodegrade and the landfill method we currently use wastes very valuable space. There is also the extremely concerning issue with our waterways and oceans. The plastics break down into microplastics: containing toxins and harmful chemicals. These are harmful not only to the environment itself, but the animals and marine life as well. She mentions that there are definitely more sustainable plastics, like the kind used in water bottles and legos. But, so far, scientists are yet to find a way to recycle “thermoplastics”. Thermoplastics are cured using heat. This allows for cross links between atoms to be made, making them able to withstand heavy impact like recycling. This means they also can’t be melted down and formed into new shapes. However, a new type of plastic has been invented that may replace thermoplastic. It's called a vitrimer and it's very similar to thermoplastics. The only difference is in the “cross links”. With vitrimers, these cross links can be broken down, allowing them to make new cross links. This essentially means a vitrimer can be recycled over and over again.

I think that Kowalski's article is extremely relevant today. Despite most Scientists being occupied by the current Pandemic, Kowalski is still producing significant and relevant content. Again, despite the pandemic, global warming is still an issue. And because we’ve been so preoccupied, we’ve been neglecting it for quite some time. Plastics are one of the biggest pollutants; They destroy ecosystems and emit greenhouse gasses. I think her article serves as a reminder that we need to continue cutting down our plastic use. However, it’s also somewhat hopeful as she explains a possible solution for an extremely dangerous issue we are plagued with. 

Overall, Kowalski's article was very interesting. I appreciated her topic of discussion as a whole and the way she explained it. She was very deliberate in getting her points across and articulate in creating her arguments. I also thought it was helpful how she created a vocabulary list at the bottom of the article. I was unfamiliar with some of the vocabulary she used and I found it useful. If I were to improve anything, I would probably add more detail and be more specific in some of her ideas. For example, I felt a little confused after reading about vitrimers and their chemical bonds.

A new map shows where ‘murder hornets’ could spread in the U.S. - Casey McKhann

 Casey McKhann

Mr. Ippolito 

October 5th, 2020

AP Biology EF Even

Segarra, Curtis. "A new map shows where ‘murder hornets’ could spread in the U.S." Science 

News, 1 Oct. 2020, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/asian-giant-murder-hornets-new-map-habitat-united-states

In this article by Curtis Segarra, the potential dangers of the invasive Asian giant hornets is described in detail. The author discusses the presence of the murder hornents in the Pacific United States, stating, that on the North American continent, the hornets only reside in British Columbia and northern Washington state. These hornets which are renowned for invading and destroying honeybee hives. These malicious attacks on honeybees have earned the giant hornet the nickname “Murder Hornet.” The author then continues to discuss the possible habitats of the hornets and the conditions which the invasive species finds suitable. These “murder hornets,” (Vespa mandarinia), tend to reside in warm and moist environments. The article states that the most suitable habitats for the Hornets can be found along the West Coast of the United States, with other suitable areas being found on areas of the East Coast. According to the article, the current dangers of the hornets are quite low because there are only a few nests within the United States; however, if these hornets are not stopped soon there is a large potential for future inhabitants along the entire West Coast. This would be detrimental to the survival of Honeybees. Currently, scientists are attempting to track these hornets back towards their nests to eliminate the young population, but attempts have been unsuccessful. The dangers are presented through the fact that researchers do not know that much about the hornets. For example, these murder hornets nest underground, this raises questions to scientists about their ability to spread. The good news currently is that it is predicted that it will take the hornets 10 years to reach Oregon from their current location, so there is time to find a solution. 

The spread of these hornets is relevant to the modern day ecosystems of much of the West Coast, and potentially the East Coast as well. Murder Hornets earned their name because they destroy honeybees and their hives very easily. This is important because honeybees are very important to our ecosystems. They play a large role in the pollination of flowers and the production of goods. Many individuals rely on honey as a source of income and would be impacted greatly by the introduction of a highly invasive predator. These hornets would also be a danger to humans, as their sting is incredibly painful, and in rare cases, can cause death. The good news is that these dangers are not immediately relevant, and that there is time to stop the spread. This article is incredibly relevant because the time to act is now, while the population of these hornets is small. If the problem is handled properly right now, the dangers of these hornets could be mitigated. 

This article was very interesting, informative, and relevant. It detailed necessary information regarding an ongoing issue in the United States, and discussed how crucial it was that the problem was handled immediately. I think this article did a very good job of delivering its message and creating interest around the issue. I think this article could have done a few things better. First off, it would have been interesting to hear more about the negative effects of the spread of the murder hornets. I also wish more was detailed on how the murder hornets arrived in the United States. I think going forward, this author should provide additional background information and also focus on describing the impact of the issue more thoroughly. 

 Gabriela McLain

Mr. Ippolito

AP Biology

Current Event 2

October 5th, 2020

Klingerman, Brandi. “Process for Regenerating Neurons in the Eye and Brain Identified.” ScienceDaily,

    ScienceDaily, 5 Oct. 2020, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/10/201005122142.htm.

    For this current event, I decided to read Brandi Klingerman's article "Process for Regenerating Neurons in the Eye and Brain Identified." Death of neurons in the brain or the eye can cause many different neurodegenerative disorders like blindness and Parkinson's disease. This article explains that a team of researchers from the University of Notre Dame, John Hopkinds University, Ohio State University, and the University of Florida. These researchers created a study when they mapped the genes of animals that have the ability to regenerate the retinal neuron. One example of these animals is the zebrafish. When the retina of a zebrafish is damaged, cells called the Muller glia go through a process called reprogramming. During reprogramming, the Muller glia cells change their gene expression to become more like progenitor cells. Progenitor cells are cells that are used during early development of an organism. These now progenitor-like cells can become any cell necessary to fix the damaged retina. Like zebrafish, humans also have Muller glia cells but if a human retina is damaged, the Muller glia cells respond with gliosis which doesn't allow them to reprogram. After the team determined the varying animal processes for retina damage recover, they had to figure out if the process of reprogramming and gliosic were similar. The researchers ask the question "would the Muller glia follow the same path in regeneration and non-regenerating animals or would the paths be completely different?" This is an important question to ask because in order for Muller glia cells to regenerate retinal neurons in people they need to know if it would be a matter of redirecting the current Muller glia path or if it would be an entirely different process. The research team found that the regeneration process only requires an organism to revert back to its early development process. They also found that during Zebrafish regeneration, Muller glia also go through gliosis. This means that organisms that are able to regenerate retinal neurons follow a similar path to organisms that can't. The researchers were then abe to modify Zebrafish Muller glia cells into a similar state that blocked reprogramming while also having a mouse model regenerate some retinal neurons.

    These discoveries are relevant to society today because they could possibly lead to scientists discovering a way to regenerate retinal neurons in the eye and brain. Able to repair retinal neurons, it is possible that scientists and researchers would be able to cure and help with disorders like blindness and Parkinson's disease. This would be a huge advancement in the medical and scientific world.

    Overall, I thoroughly enjoyed reading this article and found it very interesting. I thought that the author did a very good job at explaining what regenerating retinal neurons means and how it is done in Zebrafish compared to humans. Although this is a complex topic, the author was clear and I was easily able to understand the topic without any previous knowledge. However, something I think that the author could improve would be to talk more about what this means for society and what are the benefits for doing this research. One way to improve this would be to maybe mention a specific person and explain what this would actually mean for people with disorders of the retinal neurons. I found this article very interesting and I believe this research will have a large impact on medicine in the future.

"How COVID-19 can Damage the Brain" -Review by Eric Fleisig

 Eric Fleisig

10/4/20

Ap Bio

Current Events 2

Citation: 

Marshall, Michael. “How COVID-19 Can Damage the Brain.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 15 Sept. 2020, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02599-5. 

www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02599-5

https://bronxvilleapbiology.blogspot.com/

For this week's current event I read the article “How COVID-19 Can Damage the Brian.” by Micheal Marshall. This  article addresses that COVID-19 can actually damage your brain when you get it, and not only show the symptoms doctors are telling you. This article uses an example of a woman who began to see lions, and monkeys in her house. She was even convinced that her husband was an imposter and not actually him. The article says “Some people hospitalized with COVID-19 were experiencing delirium: they were confused, disoriented and agitated.” And in some cases, like this woman, symptoms of this were much much worse. A group in Japan recently saw that COVID-19 patients saw swelling in the brain and damage to the tissue as well. But not only does COVID cause these things, there are now reports they can lead to strokes and memory loss as well. A neuroscientist at the University of California says,“The neurological symptoms are only becoming more and more scary.” A case study was compiled of 43 patients in July. There are multiple patterns that seem to be showing up. The most common was strokes and memory loss.

This article is extremely important in today's world. While most people and the news are reporting that symptoms are only cough, and other short term symptoms, this case study and research would make the virus much much worse than what people were thinking. If it’s true that these cause strokes and memory loss, this is a whole different game with covid. It would make this virus much more dangerous than previously thought and should be taken even more seriously as well. While people may be asymptomatic, these things after covid can still be relevant and an issue. While many people may be thinking that COVID is dying down and  not an issue any longer, finding out that this has long term effects can change the strategy and increase pressure to continue to lock down on COVID. 

Overall, I felt like this article was really well written and really liked the way he presented his facts with studies. I really liked how he started out with the story of the woman. It felt like he was trying to reel in the reader and I felt like it worked really well. It really interested me and confused me a bit as well. But as the article went on, he explained why this woman was experiencing the symptoms she was. I also liked how he presented case studies to back up his article and his opinion. He used insightful and interesting facts to present his article and overall was really good. 

"Scientists take a step toward understanding 'jumping genes' effect on the genome" - Review by Erin Foley

 Erin Foley

October 4th, 2020

AP Biology C Block Even

Current Event 2 Review

    Swayne, Matt. “Scientists Take a Step toward Understanding 'Jumping Genes' Effect on the Genome.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 2 Oct. 2020, phys.org/news/2020-10-scientists-genes-effect-genome.html.

    This article reveals important new information revealed about the human genome, specifically, why some sequences move around different locations within it. These sequences - referred to as "Long Interspersed Elements-1" (L1s), or more commonly as "jumping genes" - are important to understand for a number of reasons. They make up 17% of the human genome, regulating many of the genome's functions, and throughout the course of evolution, they have expanded the size of our genome by giving rise to many new jumping gene sequences. After extensive research using computer models (which has been published in a recent issue of Molecular Biology and Evolution), researchers at Penn State concluded that the "jumping" is not random - these sequences show trends of integrating in one particular spot of the genome and ending up in another genomic location after some evolutionary time. Moreover, they found that as L1s jump about the genome, they greatly affect the genomic landscapes at which they arrive. Thus, it has been concluded that L1s have an evolutionary impact on one's genome - their movement is not random or without consequences. Knowing this, geneticists have hyper-focused on figuring out L1s' impacts of diseases and important traits that are encoded in the genome, as this could unlock many mysteries in the medical field. 

    This information could be pivotal in the medical industry and on society, with medical applications in oncology and neurology. For instance, analyses of DNA sequences of certain cancers and neurology reveal that there are certain L1s/movements of L1s associated with them. Considering the fact that around 18 million people in the world have cancer, and a staggering 1 billion suffer from neurological diseases, any developments in understanding their links to genes are essential. Moreover, the advanced technology used to investigate L1s in this study has major implications for the medical/genomics field. The method of 'functional data analysis' that the researches used allowed them to analyze the genomic landscape at a much higher resolution than is offered by the traditional 'comparing average values' method. This computer modeling method will most likely be adopted by other researches in the genomics field, and will enable their research across a range of diseases. The analyses of L1s will allow researchers to understand more about critical diseases, which will directly impact society by potentially saving hundreds of millions of lives.

    This article was extremely informative and well-organized, but could be strengthened by a few simple tweaks. It was organized so that a brief introduction to genomics/jumping genes was given prior to the description of the study, which allows a larger number of readers to understand the article (as not everyone knows what jumping genes actually are). It then described the study in detail, including specifics on how it was conducted, which allows the reader to better visualize the findings. Finally, it described the real-world implications of these findings, which helps the reader to understand its significance, rather than simply hearing facts about our DNA. I feel as if I learned a lot about a topic I know very little about in a short period of time. Still, there were a few ways in which it could be improved. Firstly, the author could've spent more time describing the implications of this study on oncology and neurology, as that's the part that will draw in most readers. I understand that any conclusions drawn about cancer and neurological diseases is crucial and positively impacts millions, however, the conclusions drawn should have been more focused on. I would've better understood the significance of the study if I could've understood the exact developments being made in the medical study. Overall, however, the article provided relevant and to-the-point information that made it easy to understand complex topics. 

"Like Theranos, but It Works’–Health Startup Genalyte Proves Its Worth" - review Hugh Duffy

 Hugh Duffy

Mr. Ippolito

Current Event 2 (Review)

9/25/2020

https://www.fastcompany.com/40574949/like-theranos-but-it-works-health-startup-genalyte-proves-its-worth

Raphael, Rina. “‘Like Theranos, but It Works’–Health Startup Genalyte Proves Its Worth.” Fast Company, Fast Company, 12 June 2018, www.fastcompany.com/40574949/like-theranos-but-it-works-health-startup-genalyte-proves-its-worth.

One of the most outdated medical services offered today is blood work. For simple, reliable tests to be run on modern machines, an entire vial of blood is needed. For many years, scientists and engineers have been conceptualizing the next blood testing breakthrough of the twenty-first century with no success. The world of medical engineering is extremely competitive. Companies are more than willing to steal other’s research, and many corporations profit heavily on fraudulent claims. No one in the medical scene has been more of a fraud than Elizabeth Holmes. In 2003, Holmes, a Stamford dropout and daughter of once Enron VP Christian Holmes, founded her company Theranos, a privately owned healthcare industry focused on medical engineering. Her innovative ideas were so out of this world that her professors at Stamford called them “science fiction”. Holmes’ first product design for Theranos was a small patch to be placed on the arm, capable of detecting infection and releasing antibiotics. This idea was entirely science fiction, and according to the proper laws of physics, impossible. This failure didn’t stop Holmes. She went on to challenge the world of hematology, claiming that it was possible to fully analyze someone's blood with only one drop. No more large machines, no more large corporations like Quest monopolizing bloodwork. Her pitch was a small machine she called the “Edison”. The Edison was ideally capable of running a complete blood diagnostic in a fraction of the time, with a fraction of the blood. This idea was unheard of, and intrigued many Silicon Valley investors, and after she accumulated her roots within the industry, Holmes’ “fake it till’ you make it” scheme began. She convinced countless important investors to give her millions of dollars for the development of fictional technology. Her Edison machine defied the laws of thermodynamics and spatial physics, but as she maintained a thick iron curtain over her company, investors were never alerted of this fraudulent science. Eventually, Theranos stock amounted to nearly 9 billion dollars, Elizabeth began making deals with large pharmaceutical companies like Walgreens to implement the (inoperable) Edison within stores. After years of swindling investors, Holmes was eventually exposed for her lies, and Thernos stock dropped from billions of dollars, to nothing. Holmes was then charged with two counts of wire fraud, and is now awaiting her trial for up to twenty years in federal prison. 

It's 2020 now, and while the technology didn’t exist five years ago, startup companies have begun clinging to Holmes’ initial idea. Apparently, the Edison isn’t entirely science fiction. Genalyte, a research institute in San Diego, has revived the idea of quick, portable blood testing. Gary Gunn, the CEO of Genalyte says,  “We should be able to do all of these diagnostic tests in a couple of minutes.” Elizabeth Holms said the exact same thing, but this time the science is here. Instead of boasting about only having to withdraw one drop of blood, Genalyte takes roughly 10ml. This is the amount taken in standard blood tests, however patients are now able to receive their results within the same doctor’s visit. “Finally, Genalyte permits the medical community–and investors–to inspect its technology. It offers numerous white papers and has published clinical studies in peer-reviewed journals. Theranos, by contrast, treated its inner mechanisms as trade secrets.” (Rina 3) Genalyte is open with investors and the FDA regarding their technology, and because their machines have been reviewed by bioengineers across the Union, there is no reason to compare them to Theranos. This is a true innovation. Today, Genalyte is offering quick and easy access to COVID-19 tests. Eight percent of the human genome is made up of viral DNA. This DNA has been passed down by each generation. Genalyte’s new fast diagnostic technology can resolve the issue of viruses which can affect their host’s hereditary genes, and in the future viral DNA may be eliminated from our cells outside of the immune system. “Diagnostic testing composes just a small percentage–under 3%–of healthcare spending, yet it’s involved in nearly 70% of all clinical decisions.” (Rina 4) The importance of biotechnology and engineering cannot be overstated, it can drastically change the future of humanity. 

This article was well written, and definitely compelled me as a reader. The connection between engineering and biology is emphasized constantly, and I think that is important. In modern society, especially in the era of COVID-19, quick and affordable testing is essential. What is being designed at Genalyte is the future, and humanity may actually see the day where diseases like cancer are detected immediately. There are only a few weaknesses of this article, however none of them are related to the author or her work. There is simply not enough research to achieve the same goal that Elizabeth Holmes had attempted, but that can all change in the future. Overall, I enjoyed this article greatly, and will certainly continue to observe Genalyte’s future advancements. 

COVID-19 Vaccine Development Threatens Shark Populations

 Nate Kim

AP Bio, Mr. Ippolito

9/28/20

Current Events

"COVID-19 vaccine development threatens shark populations. (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2020, from Discovery.com website: https://www.discovery.com/nature/covid-19-vaccine-threatens-shark-population"

Article

The article I read talked about why the COVID-19 vaccine would need to use sharks. A compound known as squalene is found in abundance in the livers of sharks. This compound is available from other sources, but it's more expensive and takes longer to extract. A group known as "Shark Allies" estimates that for one vaccine for every person on Earth 250,000 sharks would need to be killed. They also add that it's a definite possibility that two doses will be needed for an effective treatment, doubling the number of sharks needed. Excluding COVID-19 vaccines, squalene is already extracted from three million sharks a year for cosmetics and medicines. One example is the flu shot, which contains squalene in order to enhance immune system response. Shark Allies believes that the increased harvesting of endangered sharks could lead to the extinction of some species of sharks. They also believe that the alternatives for squalene, although less efficient and more costly, will be more beneficial for society in the long run.

One thing is for sure: in order to return to "normal life," we need a COVID-19 vaccine. From my prior research/ knowledge of this topic, I know that a lot of corners are being cut. The human test trials in China did not take into account long-term effects and have already been pushed out to thousands of citizens. In addition, the trials in America are being rushed to meet a November deadline. The reason for all these corners being cut is to get this vaccine out as fast as possible, and hopefully get some herd immunity before winter. If the government is disregarding requirements for a vaccine in order to push it out faster, I highly doubt that another half a million sharks will be able to stop the vaccine. It is interesting that this issue is being brought up now. As a relatively informed citizen, I'm well aware that some species of sharks are endangered. Until today, however, I had no idea that three million sharks a year were harvested for their livers. If sharks are endangered, why has this issue not been brought up sooner? Why am I just hearing about it now? The problem Shark Allies' argument is that the number of sharks harvested annually is too high. Adding a half-a-million onto three million doesn't seem like a huge issue. I mean, there's already three million being killed, right? Where's the harm in adding a couple more... If the number of sharks being harvested annually was lower (like 1 million or less), this case would be much easier to fight. As I see it, society's need for a vaccine as quickly as possible will lead to sharks being used.

This article has very few flaws. It is concise while being very informative. After reading the article, I felt that I had a rounded understanding of the situation and I felt that I had learned something new. The flow of the article was natural and the progression of ideas did not feel forced. If I had to critique anything, it would be that the specific costs/times of alternatives for squalene were not given. As an uninformed reader, I do not know how much more expensive and how much more time alternatives for sharks are. As a result, my final opinion is very biased because the article only includes thoughts from Shark Allies and leaves out any rebuttals. I am unable to make an informed decision on whether alternatives should be used because I do not know exactly how much more expensive the alternatives are. If the article included some arguments from organizations that disagree with Shark Allies and the specific costs of squalene from sharks and alternatives, this article would have been much more informative. It would also allow the reader to draw more independent conclusions.