Little-known protein appears to play important role in obesity and metabolic disease

Ava Chiang 

11/24/19

AP Biology

Current Event #9

Scripps Research Institute. "Little-known protein appears to play important role in obesity and metabolic disease: The recently discovered protein is normally abundant in fat; without it, the body struggles to manage glucose and insulin." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 20 November 2019. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/11/191120175618.htm>. 

In the article “Little-known protein appears to play important role in obesity and metabolic disease” published by the Scripps Research Institute, scientists discover a protein that is highly expressed in fat tissue. This discovery leads to new discoveries about obesity and metabolism, and may introduce new ways for addressing obesity related illnesses. This new protein is called PGRMC2 and had been detected in the uterus, liver, and other areas of the body. PGRMC2 is important because it encapsulates a molecule called heme, and transports it from the cell’s mitochondria to the nucleus, without this protective barrier PGRMC2 provides, heme would react with and destroy everything in its path. Heme is an iron containing molecule that travels within the cell to enable crucial processes such as cellular respiration, cell proliferation, cell death, and circadian rhythms. Enrique Saez, PhD, and his team centered their research around “what happens in the body if this protein doesn't exist to transport heme.” They discovered that wihtout PGRMC2 present in fat tissues, mice fed a high-fat diet became intolerant to glucose and insensitive to insulin, while obese-diabetic mice treated with a drug that activates their PGRMC2 levels show improvement with their symptoms. PGRMC2 levels are also high within brown fats, known as the good fats. A key role of brown fat is to generate heat to maintain body temperature, without PGRMC2, heme cannot function, and body temperature drops due to mitochondrial dysfunction.

Diabetes and other obesity related metabolic diseases are one of the most costly illnesses in the world, and its numbers are fast rising. In America alone, adult obesity rates exceed 35% in nine states. 30% in 31 states, and 25% in 48 states. The discovery of PGRMC2 can introduce a new way to reduce deaths caused by obesity and also improve the symptoms of it. The lack of PGRMC2 combined with a high-fat diet in mice shows the symptoms of diabetes, therefore, the addition of PGRMC2 could be the key to curing obesity. In addition, the protein (PGRMC2)  that helps transport heme, a molecule known to react and destroy anything in its path, had not been identified until now. So regardless of the future uses of PGRMC2, it is still a great scientific discovery.

This article was very interesting and informative, it included quotes from the leading scientists of this research and also explained the significance of this protein in detail. In addition, multiple examples of the types of experiments using PGRMC2 were provided. However, this article went straight into the deep end with this information, I felt like it would be more helpful to introduce the protein mentioned in this article, PGRMC2, by first talking about how it was discovered. In addition, there is no information in this article about when this discovery would be able to be used on humans, or if there were any negative effects on the mice from the drugs that increase PGRMC2 levels. If possible, I would like to see the author include more background information in the article.

“California Landfills Are Belching High Levels of Climate-Warming Methane.”

Olivia Conniff

Mr. Ippolito

Current Event 9

11/24/19

Gramling, Carolyn. “California Landfills Are Belching High Levels of Climate-Warming Methane.” Science News, 13 Nov. 2019, www.sciencenews.org/article/california-landfills-are-belching-high-levels-climate-warming-methane.

For my ninth current event, I decided to read “California Landfills are Belching High Levels of Climate-Warming Methane” by Carolyn Gramling. In her article, Gramling gives the details of the efforts of a group of researchers who used airborne remote sensing to find the exact places in California, that produce the greatest amount of methane, one of the most potent greenhouse gases. These researchers discovered that the greatest producers of methane are dairy farms, the oil and gas industry, and the highest producer being landfills. It was discovered that landfills contribute 41% of methane emissions, and dairy farms and the oil and gas industry contribute 26% each. 

This research on the greatest sources of methane production is extremely important, as it means that we can focus our mitigation efforts on those sources, to slow the rate of climate change and stop this gas from deteriorating the ozone layer. It will help us to zero in our efforts on facilities that are producing the greatest amount of greenhouse gases, particularly methane.

While I found Gramling’s article to be very interesting, it was a bit confusing while reading, and I certainly had to go back multiple times and reread. It started out strong and clear, talking about the team of researchers focused on pinpointing the greatest producer of methane in California. It was also very clear when giving facts and statistics, particularly the percentages that make up the greatest producers of methane. However later in the article it got confusing when describing 5 different research efforts at once. It was worded strangely and very hard to follow. I feel she could have improved this if she had focused on each research effort separately or not included so many. However, overall it was a very interesting and informative article.

Sleep May Trigger Rhythmic Power Washing in the Brain

Mariana Apostolatos
Mr. Ippolito
Current Event 9
November 24, 2019

Sanders, Laura. “Sleep May Trigger Rhythmic Power Washing in the Brain.” Science News, 31 Oct. 2019, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/sleep-may-trigger-rhythmic-power-washing-brain.

According to a recent article by Laura Sanders, sleep may trigger rhythmic power washing in the brain. Every 20 seconds, a wave of fresh cerebrospinal fluid rolls into the sleeping brain. These slow, rhythmic blasts may help explain why sleep is so important for brain health. Studies on animals have shown that the fluid, called CSF, can wash harmful proteins, including those implicated in Alzheimer’s disease, out of the brain. Researchers then studied 13 healthy, young people in an MRI scanner as they fell into non-REM sleep. By using a form of rapid fMRI, the team measured the movements of CSF in the brain. Fast fMRI revealed waves of fresh CSF that flowed rhythmically into the sleeping brains. Sanders continued to describe that awake people have small, gentle waves of CSF that are largely linked to breathing patterns while the sleep waves were tsunamis. Those CSF waves were tied to other types of waves in the brain, the researchers found. It’s not yet clear exactly how the various waves are related to each other, however, spotting these powerful CSF waves in the sleeping brain raises the possibility that they may clear harmful waste products from the brain. CSF coming into mice’s brains can carry away amyloid-beta, a sticky protein that accumulates in Alzheimer’s disease. When mice are asleep, more CSF comes into their brains, and more amyloid-beta gets cleared away. Finding an influx of CSF in sleeping humans “is really a significant move,” neurologist Maiken Nedergaard says.

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions. Affecting an estimated amount of 5.8 million people in the U.S. with the disease, it is a common disease with no cure. Slow waves of nerve cells’ electrical activity during sleep are known to decline with age, and the decline is particularly severe in people with Alzheimer’s disease. That decline could mean that the CSF waves are diminished in these people, too, an absence that could leave more toxic proteins sticking around. Studying the strong CSF waves in people with Alzheimer’s disease might reveal new aspects of the disorder and can ultimately change society. 

This article was very well written and informative. It was very easy to read and follow, even providing a video of the MRI scanner during non-REM sleep, when oxygen-rich blood flows out of the brain just before a wave of cerebrospinal fluid rolls in. All of the information was introduced in chronological order and the author was very straight-foward and to the point. However, I felt that the article was lacking some information that could have helped deepen a reader’s understanding. The article was very short and I wished the author went more in depth about  Alzheimer’s disease and if there were other diseases that studying CSF waves could provide new information on. Overall, the article was easy to understand, engaging, and not too long, keeping the information relevant and to the point.

Some People With Half a Brain Have Extra Strong Neural Connections

Rory Christian
Mr. Ippolito
Current Event 9
November 21, 2019

Sanders, Laura. “Some People with Half a Brain Have Extra Strong Neural Connections.” Science News, 19 Nov. 2019, www.sciencenews.org/article/some-people-with-half-brain-have-extra-strong-neural-connections. 

A recent study conducted at Caltech reveals how the brain adapts after a hemispherectomy, a procedure done to treat childhood epilepsy. Six adults, who as children had half of their brain removed to treat severe epilepsy, were placed under a MRI scan as researchers measured blood flow in regions that handle vision, attention, and movement. A healthy brain has excellent blood flow and strong connections. This occurs when "one part of the brain changes in lockstep with the activity in another", implying that the regions are working together and sharing information. The overall result from the experiment was surprising; all six people had perfectly functioning brain systems. In fact, the connections were stronger than six people with whole brains; the brain can reorganize and bounce back, even stronger than before. 

Not only is this surprising, but it opens up many new opportunities for research. Questions posed about why this happens have already been brought up and are currently being contemplated by scientists. It is important that we understand as much as we can about the brain. From this study, the field of science gained valuable insight into how the brain is able to reorganize itself after a substantial change, leading to possible new approaches to recovery. Faster, improved recoveries, could help with the most serious and common brain injuries.

Sanders' article is overall very well written and discusses a groundbreaking study highlighting the effects of a hemispherectomy. However, I was underwhelmed with the overall content and detail. I feel it could be greatly improved if Sanders elaborated on the implications of the study and even more thoroughly summarized the procedure and steps taken. Overall, I think it was a bit short and more detail was needed regarding the study as a whole. Still, Sanders' article was informative and interesting and communicated the surprising and important results of this research. 

“How Your Parents May Have Shaped the Way You Act at Work.”

Erin Kaye

12/5/19

AP Biology

Current Event #10

Jarrett, Christian. “How Your Parents May Have Shaped the Way You Act at Work.” BBC Worklife, BBC, 11 Nov. 2019, www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20191108-how-your-parents-may-have-shaped-the-way-you-act-at-work.

The article by Christian Jarrett “How Your Parents May Have Shaped the Way You Act at Work,” which was published in the BBC, discussed how our relationship with our parents or our parents' relationship with each other can affect our behavior in the office. How parents solve their problems, such as bickering or by solving it amicably, can affect our ‘attachment behavioral.’ A person can have either ‘secure attachment’ meaning they are confident in their worth and trust, ‘anxious attachment’ meaning they have low self worth and fear rejection, or ‘avoidant attachment’ which is when someone avoids others because of their low self-worth and trust. The model given to children by their parents can be learned behavior but it can also be attributed to genetics. Jarrett discusses other studies where a divorce as a child can lead to the child having insecure attachment and another study where people ranked their own ‘attachment behavior’ and their parents arguing style to prove that this is more than genes. The discovery that ‘attachment behavior’ affects people in the workplace as well as romantic relationships was discovered by people talking about their parents and their effect on how they behaved in the office now. Jarrett discusses two women who think their parents relationship in solving conflict affected their behavior at work. Our attachment style develops and changes over time with new environmental circumstances so people are not always fated by their parents behaviors, and when they realize how their parents behavior affects them they can choose to be different.

This article can affect almost everyone who has to work with people. When people realize the psychology behind their behavior they can choose how to behave and remind themselves to be more open in a discussion and to work out of their comfort zone if that is something they tend to avoid. The article shows that environmental factors can have an affect on our behavior for the rest of our life but our awareness of this can give people the opportunity for how they chose to behave.

The article was very easy to follow and did a good job using studies and citing its material to back up its claims. It would have been interesting if the author talked about our parents affect on us in the workplace aside from ‘attachment behavior’ and discussed another theory or phenomenon. To improve his article he could have brought in other theories. Lastly the article was weak when it mentioned the stories of two women but did not explain how or where their stories came from. Jarrett should have added this in for clarity and reinforcement.

Self-destructing mitochondria may leave some brain cells vulnerable to ALS

Eve Sullivan
11/14/19
Current Event 8

Saey, Tina Hesman. “Self-Destructing Mitochondria May Leave Some Brain Cells Vulnerable to ALS.” Science News, 14 Nov. 2019, 

www.sciencenews.org/article/self-destructing-mitochondria-may-leave-some-brain-cells-vulnerable-als

In her article, Tina Hesman Saey discusses a newly discovered type of mitochondrial self-destruction that may make cells vulnerable to ALS. In mice genetically engineered to develop nerve disease, scientists found that mitochondria were able to destroy themselves. However, this only occurred in brain nerve cells, which help control movements. Death of these cells is common in ALS, so self-destructing mitochondria may set these cells up to eventually die. While clearing out mitochondria is important for cell health, mitochondria can sometimes trigger the programmed death of an entire cell. This is a strong indicator of ALS. The mice in the study had forms of the ALS disease caused by the buildup of one of three abnormal proteins; it was found that mice with an abundance of the TDP-43 protein had mitochondria that dismantled themselves. Though some scientists aren’t convinced that these results are entirely accurate, this study may have resulted in the discovery of a new type of mitochondrial death.

The results of this study could have an enormous impact on modern science; the discovery of a new type of mitochondrial death is a huge development that may result in more scientific breakthroughs. It also helps scientists understand what ALS is and may even lead to ways to prevent it. With over 5,000 people in the U.S. being diagnosed each year, finding the causes of ALS could eventually result in helping those affected by it and lessening the effects of the disease. The discovery of mitochondria self-destruction in the brain cells with the TDP-43 protein is already an amazing advancement that may explain why the disease forms.

Saey’s article is overall very well written. It both explains relevant details and clarifies scientific terms that some people may not know. However, I feel it could be greatly improved if Saey elaborated on the effects of the discovery. Though she spoke of how significant it was to find the self-destructive mitochondria, I think the author could have talked more about how it would influence future scientific findings. Still, Saey’s article was informative and interesting and conveyed the importance of a new type of mitochondria destruction.

Rachel Roberts

11/4/19

Bates, Sofie. “Disabling One Protein Might One Day Lead to a Cure for the Common Cold.” 

Science News, 23 Sept. 2019, 

www.sciencenews.org/article/common-cold-virus-disable-protein. 

For Current Event 7, I decided to review Sofia Bates’ article, “Disabling One Protein Might One Day Lead to a Cure for the Common Cold.” She begins by stating that researchers have found a key protein in humans that viruses use to multiply inside of human cells. If scientists can disable this protein, it could prevent the spreading of infections. According to Jan Carette, a microbiologist at Stanford University School of Medicine, when the protein is disabled in mice and human cells, the virus could not replicate. Ellen Foxman, an immunologist at Yale School of Medicine, says that “It’s not quite a cure for the common cold, but it’s an interesting step forward.” Carette and her collages used CRISPR, the gene-editing device to identify and pull out the human proteins that were attached to viral proteins. They found that the protein SETD3 was repeatedly pulled out. They also found that when SETD3 was taken out of mice, they would not become sick. These discoveries gave scientists the idea to remove the protein. However, there isn’t enough known about it and the effects of removing it for the procedure to be safe. For example, Vincent Racaniello, a virologist at Columbia University, said, “The authors show that mice lacking the gene for SETD3 are viable and resistant to infection. However, this observation does not mean that SETD3 in humans is dispensable,” This uncertainty caused for the idea of drugs that could block proteins and their viral counterparts from interacting or drugs that would destroy proteins interacting with viral ones. The discovery of how specific proteins help viruses multiply could help create a cure for the common cold and many other viral infections. 

While the research of SETD3 has been mainly focused on curing the common cold, its removal could also help cure other viral infections. In her article, Bates wrote, “Repeating those experiments with similar but potentially more serious viruses suggested the approach may be effective against more than just the common cold. Engineered human cells didn’t become infected when they were exposed to viruses that cause hand, foot, and mouth disease, and a polio-like spinal cord disease called acute flaccid myelitis. And when mice were exposed to these viruses, the rodents that didn’t have a functioning version of SETD3 were much more likely to survive than those that had the working gene.” This quote shows how the removal of SETD3 helped the mice recover from other illnesses. This means that scientists can use similar methods to find cures to other diseases, increasing the length and quality of life.

When reading this article, I found that there were many good aspects of her writing. She was able to explain the information used in the article very well, especially since I did not know much about the subject before reading it. For example, her explanation of how the scientists used CRISPR was helpful, and it allowed me to explain it in this review. Also, while there was not much of a background story following the person who made the discovery, Bates was still able to make the article very interesting by creating the storyline of how the scientists discovered SETD3. Although the story was captivating, there were some choppy areas of the article. It transitioned quickly between topics, which would sometimes confuse me. For example, the article went from the article went discovery of the key proteins, to the statistics of the common cold, and then back to how the proteins were identified. While the statistics helped understand the issues of finding the cure to the common cold, it felt slightly misplaced in the sense that it broke up the story. There were slight transitions at the end of the paragraphs, but not enough to fully cue the reader in that topics will shift. While most of the article was well written, it would be much easier to read if there was a clear order of information.

Newly Discovered Virus Replicates in a Completely Unknown Way

A review of:

Saplakoglu, Yasemin. “This Newly Discovered Virus Replicates in a Completely Unknown Way.” LiveScience, Purch, 28 Oct. 2019, www.livescience.com/new-virus-discovered-lacking-important-proteins.html.

I chose to review the article “This Newly Discovered Virus Replicates in a Completely Unknown Way” by Yasemin Saplakoglu. This was a relatively short article which shared information about a newly discovered type of enterovirus G (EV-G). This new virus was the result of two other viruses that shared genetic material, an enterovirus G and a torovirus. What is so surprising about this new virus, is that is is able to thrive, even though it lacks the proteins necessary for replication. Enteroviruses are spread through infected organisms as well surfaces covered with the virus, and are transmittable through fecal matter, saliva, mucus and other bodily liquids. Researchers in Japan studying pig and cow poop discovered the virus, as “these dirty environments, where lots of animals constantly interact, are a good place for viruses to quickly evolve”(Yasemin). The new EV-G strain, named type 2 EV-G, lacks an important feature that is present in all other known viruses. It lacks “structural proteins,” as they are called, which allow microbes to attach to, enter, and replicate within host cells. The virus strain does not have the genes which code for these proteins, though the virus does contain “unknown” and not previously studied genes. “Without structural proteins, the virus shouldn't be able to infect other cells,” says Tetsuya Mizutani, the director at the Research and Education Center for Prevention of Global Infectious Disease of Animal (TUAT) in Japan. Despite this, the same virus was found on the same farm within the fecal matter of pigs over three years later, suggesting that the virus is somehow thriving and replicating within pigs. The researchers hypothesized that the type 2 EV-G virus borrowed structural proteins from other nearby viruses referred to as “helper viruses,” similar to how hepatitis D relies on hepatitis B for replication despite having its own structural proteins.

This discovery has implications for human society and possible developments in preventing and treating the viruses that plague humans. While the various strains of EV-G cannot currently infect humans, there is a distinct possibility that viruses that do have the ability to infect humans may evolve in a similar fashion. "Understanding how viral recombination occurs and how viruses develop dependencies on helper viruses is an important key to unlocking some of the mysteries of virus evolution," says Amesh Adalja, an infectious disease specialist. In 2013, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) approved changes to EV and rhinovirus species names, and a later proposal was made to drop the designation of viruses as human, bovine, porcine, and simian^1 after studying the genetic similarity of the viruses and human enterovirus species were successfully isolated in non-human hosts. There is a high chance that many EVs that naturally exist and circulate through animal populations may also be infecting humans. For this reason, the study of viruses and viral evolution is key for keeping human populations protected, particularly the more susceptible infant population and children under the age of one. The study of these viruses and the environmental causes of their evolution serve as a reminder of the importance of maintaining hygienic conditions in areas with high human populations.

Yasemin’s article smartly condensed information and presented it in a way that would be easy to understand for anyone. The article introduced the discovery of the new enterovirus, and gave background information on who and how the discovery was made. The article also highlighted how this discovery prompted more research and the questions that it raised - and the desire of Mizutani and his team “to figure out which helper viruses enable 2 EV-G to survive, and exactly what the unknown genes do”(Yasemin). However, I found that the article was a bit lacking in information, and I had to do some outside research to answer some of the questions I developed while reading the article. I was glad to find that the author included a link to the original publication of this discovery. I think the article would have been much more credible and beneficial if it also contained additional references, citations, or links to other,related research.

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1.  Fieldhouse, Jane K, et al. “A Systematic Review of Evidence That Enteroviruses May Be Zoonotic.” National Center for Biotechnology Information , Nature Publishing Group UK, 26 Sept. 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6158190/.

Ellyn Paris 

Mr. Ippolito

Current Event 7

11/4/19

Martone, Robert. “Scientists Demonstrate Direct Brain-to-Brain Communication in Humans.” Scientific American, 29 Oct. 2019.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientists-demonstrate-direct-brain-to-brain-communication-in-humans/

In this article, the possibility of direct brain-to-brain communication in humanity’s future was discussed. This type of communication would be a way for the human species to provide information to another being through the transmission of their brain’s electrical activity. Miguel Nicolelis, a leading scientist in this field, used complex implanted electrodes on rats to study the communication that could be transferred from one rat’s brain to another. It was discovered that the linked animals synchronized the electrical activity of their nerve cells as if it were one brain. This connection allowed them to be “smarter” (they outperformed other rates in specific activities). Similar experiences were tested on humans, where three individuals sitting in different rooms were “linked” while playing a video game, and their brains’ response to this collaboration was recorded using EEGs (electroencephalographs). They were able to complete the video game while achieving an accuracy rate of 80%. While these experiments focus on the connecting of brains for individuals of the same species, studies have been done connecting organisms of different species. In one experiment, a human was able to control a rat that had a surgically implanted brain interface. 

While brain-to-brain communication is not yet developed enough to be used in daily life, the importance of these new discoveries could have an important impact on society. First of all, as Nicolelis explains, “thoughts and feelings would be completely shared with none of the selectivity or deception that language permits” (Martone, 3). Misunderstandings and miscommunications would be avoided. While these impacts are more personal and individual, brain-to-brain communication could have influential powers on a wider scale. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency wishes to use these findings to develop an implantable neural interface that could activate one million nerve cells simultaneously. Although some anticipate development in this field in the hopes that it could improve our society, others are concerned by it. They question the morality of brain-to-brain communications, wondering if it could potentially compromise somebody’s individuality and privacy. 

This article’s main strength is its ability to fascinate the readers and convince them to continue learning about this subject. The topic is interesting on its own, but the author’s writing intrigues the reader to read until the end. The vocabulary is easy to understand, and there are many examples of studies and experiments that back up the main theme of the article. However, these experiments and studies are not always cited. Nicolelis is given credit at the beginning for a set of experiments, but as the writing develops and more experiments are mentioned, the scientists or universities behind the experiments are not cited. To improve this article, Martone should cite all his sources when writing about them. Furthermore, going further into the impact these discoveries could have on society would also improve the article. Although he mentions the government's plans with these findings, he does not explain the impact this would have on the country’s population or the international consequences that could arise.